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Return home6.2. Battery electric vehicles
Discover BEVs and explore the ranges and efficiencies. Get tips to maximise your electric vehicle range and learn about implementing driver training BEV replacement options backed up with case studies.
Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) have a lower range on a single charge than most internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles do on a full tank of fuel. For this reason, it’s important to understand the different types of journeys your vehicles make.
If there are charge points on your vehicles’ routes, you could use vehicles with a smaller battery size that meet the operational requirements of your fleet. This will save you money as the battery is often the most expensive part of the vehicle. It will also reduce your CO2e emissions as there are embedded CO2e emissions in battery production.
Driving with an unnecessarily large battery is also less efficient as batteries are heavy. Installing and using telematics will highlight how often your vehicles are driving high mileage. You could then have dedicated vehicles for high mileage journeys and others for shorter trips.
Most BEVs on the market can accept a DC rapid charge. Most of Scotland’s current rapid chargers are rated at 50kW. This can add between 50 and 80 miles of range in 30-40 minutes (depending on the size and efficiency of the vehicle).
Many second-hand models are incapable of rapid charging and take longer to charge. However, they’re cheaper to buy, so may be a better option if you don’t need rapid charging. For example, vehicles with regular, prolonged downtime may never need to rapid charge, as they can charge entirely from AC fast chargers.
It’s vital that you understand your vehicle duty cycles when choosing the best zero emission vehicle (ZEV) replacement options. You should avoid over-specifying vehicles, or automatically replacing them on a like-for-like basis. This can add unnecessary costs and CO2e emissions.
A vehicle with high mileage, but regular stops throughout the day, may have time for multiple top-up charges. This work pattern can increase the maximum daily range of an electric vehicle, making lower specification models a viable option. However, you need to make sure that there is suitable charging infrastructure in place to support this first. Read more about charging infrastructure.
BEV efficiency (in the UK often measured in mi/kWh, elsewhere usually Wh/km or kWh/km) can be affected by vehicle weight (which ties to battery size) drag, and motor type. Before buying, it’s important to work out exactly what the requirements are for range (battery size), charging type and vehicle size. Buying the most efficient models possible will result in the lowest running costs and largest CO2e savings.
People’s perceptions of BEV driving ranges are often lower than the reality. Figure 18 shows distances in 5 miles increments up to 25 miles from Edinburgh city centre. The largest distance shows a 50-mile round trip, a journey that would be possible in most BEVs. This also includes heavy, fully laden battery-electric light commercial vehicle (LCV) driving in poor weather conditions.
It’s essential that you understand a BEV’s actual range when deciding whether it could replace a particular ICE vehicle. You also need to understand the importance of planning charging opportunities on a route or during shifts as necessary.
Figure 18 – 25 mile range map from Edinburgh in 5 mile increments
Account for seasonal differences
Changes in weather patterns and temperature can affect the range capabilities of EVs.
A test carried out by the American Automobile Association found that EV ranges dropped by 41% when operating in temperatures of -6C with the heating on. This happened because of the impact cold temperatures have on the vehicle’s batteries. The electrochemical reactions in lithium-ion batteries are slowed by cold weather, reducing the power discharge potential.
Reducing your driving range can also slow charging times. You can manage this by following some of the tips below. It’s also helpful to be aware that you may need to change your normal routes when the temperature is low.
Tips to maximise electric vehicle range
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After the power drawn by the motor, the cabin heater is the biggest drain on an EV’s battery. Having the cabin heater on can reduce range by up to 30%. By pre-heating the cabin whilst plugged into a charge point, it will be at a comfortable level at the time of entering, therefore won’t use as much charge to maintain this temperature during the journey.
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This will pre-heat the battery. A warmer battery will discharge power more efficiently, thereby maximising range available when commencing a journey.
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Adopting an anticipatory driving style – avoiding abrupt starts and stops – will help get the most out of a battery’s range.
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The battery will charge at a quicker rate when warm. As the battery is warmed by heat generated in the powertrain when driving, charging the vehicle immediately upon stopping – before the battery can cool back down – will maximise the charging rate. If the battery is cold, the molecular action in the battery slows down, reducing its ability to accept charge.
Implement driver training
Better driving can reduce your fleet emissions and costs.
Fuel efficient driving, or ecodriving, describes driving techniques that maximise vehicle efficiency. Most of these techniques apply to ICE vehicles as well as BEVs. When used in ICE vehicles, it can reduce the amount of fuel used. This translates to reductions in carbon emissions and air pollutants. Ecodriving has a strong focus on anticipation, which also improves safety.
Adopting the following recommendations could help you make initial savings of 15% in cost and carbon and help realise the range capabilities of any EVs in your fleet.
Driver behaviour changes to reduce fleet emissions
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Anticipate situations and other road users as far ahead as possible to avoid unnecessary braking and acceleration.
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When slowing down or driving downhill, remain in gear but remove your foot from the accelerator. This will remove unnecessary strain from the engine and reduce fuel consumption.
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When accelerating, shift to a higher gear early. This will reduce strain on the engine, improving fuel consumption.
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High speeds greatly increase fuel consumption
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Air conditioning adds to the fuel/battery consumption.
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Turn off your engine when you’re likely to be stationary for 10 seconds or longer. According to the RAC, stop start engines that automatically cut out idling can reduce air pollution from that vehicle by 20%.
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Remove racks, roof boxes and bike carriers when not in use, as these significantly increase air resistance and fuel consumption at higher speeds.
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Any added weight will increase fuel consumption.
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Service your vehicle regularly. Ensure tyre pressure is correct.
Introductory BEV videos
We have created 24 model-specific introductory videos for popular electric vehicles. These videos are a good starting point for members of staff who are unfamiliar with the technology or specific electric vehicle models.
Possible BEV replacement options: off-road vehicles
If your fleet operates in rural areas, your fleet may include some off-road vehicles. These are likely to be more challenging to replace as there are relatively few zero emission options currently available for off road vehicles. Pick-up truck type off-road vehicles are sometimes classed as LCVs under the DVLA. This may give you more time to adopt a zero emission alternative, as you will have until 2030 to meet the government’s LCV target. This should give the market more time to mature and give you more options.
Several vehicles are expected to enter this market in the next few years. An inexhaustive list is detailed in table 17 below, along with the potential fuel costs and CO2e emissions produced from driving 10,000 miles. Because some of these vehicles are not yet in regular production, values are estimates.
Table 17 – List of some examples of current and future off-road BEVs
| Savings per vehicle | Munro 4x4 EV | Rivian RIT Pickup | Maxus T90 Pickup (2x4) |
|---|---|---|---|
| EV Range | 200 (estimated) | 270-410 (estimated) | 330 (WLTP range) |
| Expected UK release | To order | On sale in US (UK planned) | Available |
| Comparison annual miles (1) | 10000 | 10000 | 10000 |
| Official CO2 per km (2) | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Annual CO2e (tonnes) (3,4) | 0.63 | 0.84 | 0.80 |
| Annual fuel costs (5) | £868 | £1,144 | £1,099 |
| First year VED (6) | £0 | £0 | £0 |
| First year costs (fuel+VED) | £868 | £1,144 | £1,099 |
- This table uses 10,000 miles as a benchmark to compare savings across different vehicle types.
- CO2 figure obtained from GOV.UK.
- Includes an uplift to reflect real-world driving conditions, based on BEIS/DESNZ methodology.
- Electric vehicle CO2e emissions are calculated using the DESNZ figure for average emissions from UK electricity generation. (DESNZ 2023).
- Fuel prices per litre used: 155.5p for petrol; 159.4p for diesel; 27p/kWh for electricity. (AA. 2023).
- Vehicle Excise Duty (VED) figures are based on post April 2017 and pre-April 2025.
- Fuel price report (AA 2023).
- Greenhouse gas reporting: conversion factors 2022 (DESNZ 2023).
Possible BEV replacement options – minibuses
The options for decarbonising minibuses and multi-purpose vehicles have increased rapidly over the last few years. Many manufacturers now offer off-the-peg minibus bodies on BEV van chassis.
The table below shows examples of possible electric minibuses, along with the potential fuel cost and CO2e emissions expected from driving 10,000 miles. We’ve also included the New European Driving Cycle or Worldwide Harmonised Light Vehicle Test Procedure range and the approximate number of seats for each model. This will help you to work out which model may be most viable for your uses.
Table 18 – List of some example minibus BEVs
| Savings per vehicle | Mellor Eleos | LDV EV80 | Mercedes eVito Tourer | Peugeot e-Traveller |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| EV range (miles) | 100 (NEDC Range) | 120 (NEDC Range) | 221 (WLTP Range) | 148 (WLTP Range) |
| Passenger seats | 16-23 | 15 | 8 | 8 |
| Comparison annual miles (1) | 10000 | 10000 | 10000 | 10000 |
| Official g CO2 per km (2) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Annual CO2e (tonnes) (3,4) | 2.66 | 1.26 | 1.32 | 0.98 |
| Annual fuel costs (5) | £3,649 | £1,722 | £1,795 | £1,340 |
| First year VED (6) | £0 | £0 | £0 | £0 |
| First year fuel costs (fuel+VED) | £3,649 | £1,722 | £1,795 | £1,340 |
- This table uses 10,000 miles as a benchmark to show the savings across different vehicle types.
- CO2 figure obtained from GOV.UK.
- Includes an uplift to reflect real-world driving conditions, based on BEIS/DESNZ methodology.
- Electric vehicle CO2e emissions are calculated using the DESNZ figure for average emissions from UK electricity generation. (DESNZ 2023)
- Fuel prices per litre used: 155.5p for petrol; 159.4p for diesel; 27p/kWh for electricity. (AA., 2023)
- Vehicle Excise Duty (VED) figures are based on post April 2017 and pre-April 2025.
AA (2023). Fuel price report (September 2023). AA.
DESNZ. (2023). Greenhouse gas reporting: conversion factors 2022.
Promote the adoption of zero emission taxis and private hire vehicles
There were over 21,700 licensed taxi and private hire vehicles in Scotland in 2022 (Scottish Transport Statistics). Due to their typically high mileage and concentration in urban areas, these vehicles have a significant impact on both local air quality and greenhouse gas emissions. The adoption of EVs in the taxi trade plays an important role in improving air quality and public health and tackling the climate emergency.
BEVs emit zero tailpipe emissions. This makes them the ideal solution for improving air quality and public health, tackling the climate emergency, and implementing more sustainable transport systems.
Benefits:
- BEVs are ideal for urban, stop-start settings, which applies to many taxi and private hire operators.
- The vehicles are smooth and quiet which appeals to both drivers and customers.
- BEVs will be more cost effective over their lifetime as a taxi or private hire vehicle. High mileage drivers in particular can expect to see the benefits from lower running and maintenance costs.
- Electric taxis and private hire vehicles will increase the visibility of BEVs. This will help to promote the technology and likely increase wider adoption.
- Improvements in battery and charging technology mean that range is increasing, and the charging time is decreasing. This is making the transition from conventional vehicles much easier.
Battery-electric taxi examples
Local policy measures and initiatives
Local action can help the electrification of taxi and private hire fleets. It does this by making EVs more convenient, cost effective and desirable than higher-polluting vehicles.
Encouraging early adoption of EVs among taxi and private hire operators will not only reduce pollution and emissions. It will also give your drivers a running start as Scotland approaches the petrol and diesel vehicle ban.
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Dundee City Council expanded its electric taxi and private hire fleet and now has one of the highest concentrations of EVs in the UK. Effective communication has been crucial to the success of Dundee’s transition. It organised quarterly meetings with the trade to understand the challenges drivers were facing. This led to the planning and implementation of new policy measures including:
- From September 2016, all new private hire vehicles had to be ZEVs.
- EV drivers were offered a 10% discount on the cost of the regular taxi test.
- Operators with a license in their name could apply for a corporate license if they operated an approved EV.
- Hackney operators could only use company plates if the vehicles were EVs.
- To increase the availability of chargepoints and prevent ‘ICEing’, the council introduced a £10 overstay penalty charge. This applied to charge times exceeding 70 minutes at a rapid chargepoint, or 190 minutes at a fast chargepoint.
- The Drive Dundee Electric campaign was introduced to raise awareness, encourage knowledge sharing and support the uptake of EVs.
Providing accessible charging infrastructure has been another critical enabler of electrification in Dundee. The number of public chargepoints has continued to grow since the first installations in 2011. There are now 253 chargepoints across the city.
In 2019, the council installed a solar powered charging hub, with dynamic load management technology and 20 charging bays.
Dundee now has three charging hubs using this same system, with a fourth scheduled for this year. EV taxis and private hire drivers were offered priority at these stations and (initially) could charge for free.
As a result of these measures, there are now 165 electric taxis operating in the city. This equates to 25% of the city’s taxi trade.
Policy examples
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- Allow higher age limits for zero emission taxis and private hire vehicles.
- Stipulate that all or some taxi and private hire vehicles in the local authority must be zero emission by a specific date.
- Allow a wide range of EV models as eligible private hire vehicles.
- Introduce flexible and relaxed licensing caps for operators using EVs.
- Set planning obligations to mandate charging infrastructure installations in specific locations.
- Have a good understanding of the profile and composition of your taxi and private hire fleet. This includes factors like age, mileage, CO2 emissions and Euro standard. This information can shape the level and timescale of your intervention.
- Review the impact of policies over time, to make sure measures introduce continue to achieve their targets. This could involve setting timeframes to regularly update policies, reflecting any EV market advances and charging technology.
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- Reduce or waiver fees for taxi and private hire licenses and renewals.
- Stipulate the use of EVs as part of local authority procurement guidelines. Include criteria in taxi and private hire tenders to make these more favourable to EV operators.
- Fund the installation of public charging infrastructure.
- Allow EV taxi and private hire drivers to use public charging infrastructure at a reduced cost or for free.
- Offer grants and incentives for local businesses to support installations of charging infrastructure.
- Allow free or discounted parking of EVs in certain locations.
- Restrict parking of ICE vehicles in EV charging bays. For example, by introducing specific parking fines for these instances.
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- Engage with taxi and private hire operators to understand how best to support them as they switch to electric. This could be done through trade workshops, meetings, and consultations.
- Raise awareness of grants and incentives for the uptake of EVs.
- Communicate the business case to drivers, highlighting the potential savings.
- Share information on the council’s website about grants, loans and local authority-specific incentives available for EV taxi and private hire drivers.
- Engage with wheelchair accessible vehicle suppliers and conversion companies, to discuss the requirements of the taxi trade. Also urge them to widen the offering of electric wheelchair accessible vehicle models.
- Promote council departmental engagement. This involves making sure all stakeholders know the trade’s issues and working together on solutions.
- Engage with other licensing authorities to promote consistency and best practice across different areas.
